Figure 3.2 illustrates the situation faced by a representative individual in the financial market. This person is assumed to have an income of $50,000 this year and an income of $60,000 next year. The market allows him not only to consume $50,000 worth of goods this year and $60,000 next year, but also to borrow and lend at the equilibrium interest rate.
The line AB in Figure 3.2 shows all of the consumption possibilities open to the person through borrowing or lending, and the shaded area contains all of the feasible choices. Let’s look at this figure more closely to see exactly why points in the shaded area are available.
In fact, this person can consume any point on the line AB. This line has a slope of Ϫ(1 ϩ r), which means that for each dollar that is added to the x coordinate along the line, (1 ϩ r) dollars are subtracted from the y coordinate. Moving along the line from point A, the initial point of $50,000 this year and $60,000 next year, toward point B gives the person more consumption today and less next year. In other words, moving toward point B is borrowing. Similarly, moving up toward point A, he is consuming less today and more next year and is lending. The
line is a straight line because the individual has no effect on the interest rate. This is one of the assumptions of perfectly competitive financial markets.
Where will the person actually be? The answer to that question depends on the individual’s tastes and personal situation, just as it did before there was a market. If the person is impatient, he might wish to borrow money at a point such as D, and if he is patient, he might wish to lend some of this year’s income and enjoy more consumption next year at, for example, a point such as C.
Notice that whether we think of someone as patient or impatient depends on the interest rate he or she faces in the market. Suppose that our individual was impatient and chose to borrow $10,000 and move to point D. Now suppose that we raise the interest rate to 20 percent or even 50 percent. Suddenly our impatient person may become very patient and might prefer to lend some of this year’s income to take advantage of the very high interest rate. The general result is depicted in Figure 3.3. We can see that lending at point C′ yields
much greater future income and consumption possibilities than before.
THE COMPETITIVE MARKET
In the previous analysis we assumed the individual moves freely along the line AB, and we ignored—and assumed that the individual ignored—any effect his borrowing or lending decisions might have on the equilibrium interest rate itself. What would happen, though, if the total amount of loans outstanding in the market when the person was doing no borrowing or lending was $10 million, and if our person then decided to lend, say, $5 million? His lending would be half as much as the rest of the market put together, and it would not be unreasonable to think that the equilibrium interest rate would fall to induce more borrowers into the market to take his additional loans. In such a situation the person would have some power in the market to influence the equilibrium rate significantly, and he would take this power into consideration in making his decisions.
In the modern financial market, however, the total amount of borrowing and lending is not $10 million; it is closer to $10 trillion. In such a huge market no one investor or even any single company can have a significant effect (although
a government might). We assume, then, in all of our subsequent discussions and analyses that the financial market is competitive. By that we mean no individuals or firms think they have any effect whatsoever on the interest rates that they face no matter how much borrowing, lending, or investing they do. In the language of economics, individuals who respond to rates and prices by acting as though they have no influence on them are called price takers, and this assumption is sometimes called the price-taking assumption. It is the condition of perfectly competitive financial markets (or, more simply, perfect markets). The
following conditions are likely to lead to this:
1. Trading is costless. Access to the financial markets is free.
2. Information about borrowing and lending opportunities is available.
3. There are many traders, and no single trader can have a significant impact on market prices.
How Many Interest Rates Are There in a Competitive Market?
An important point about this one-year market where no defaults can take place is that only one interest rate can be quoted in the market at any one time. Suppose that some competing record keepers decide to set up a rival market. To attract customers, their business plan is to offer lower interest rates, say, 9 percent. Their business plan is based on the hope that they will be able to attract borrowers away from the first market and soon have all of the business.
Their business plan will work, but it will do so beyond their wildest expectations. They will indeed attract the borrowers, all $11 million worth of them! But the matter doesn’t stop there. By offering to borrow and lend at 9 percent when another market is offering 10 percent, they have created the proverbial money machine.
The world of finance is populated by sharp-eyed inhabitants who would not let this opportunity slip by them. Any one of these, whether a borrower or a lender, would go to the new market and borrow everything he could at the 9-percent rate. At the same time he was borrowing in the new market, he would also be striking a deal to lend in the old market at the 10-percent rate. If he could borrow $100 million at 9 percent and lend it at 10 percent, he would be able to net 1 percent, or $1 million, next year. He would repay the $109 million he owed to the new market from the $110 million he receives when the 10-percent loans
he made in the original market are repaid, pocketing $1 million profit.
This process of striking a deal in one market and an offsetting deal in another market simultaneously and at more favorable terms is called arbitrage, and doing it is called arbitraging. Of course, someone must be paying for all this free money, and it must be the record keepers because the borrowers and the lenders are all making money. Our intrepid entrepreneurs will lose their proverbial shirts and go out of business. The moral of this is clear:
As soon as different interest rates are offered for essentially the same risk-free loans, arbitrageurs will take advantage of the situation by borrowing at the low rate and lending at the high rate. The gap between the two rates will be closed quickly, and for all practical purposes there will be only one rate available in the market.
The line AB in Figure 3.2 shows all of the consumption possibilities open to the person through borrowing or lending, and the shaded area contains all of the feasible choices. Let’s look at this figure more closely to see exactly why points in the shaded area are available.
In fact, this person can consume any point on the line AB. This line has a slope of Ϫ(1 ϩ r), which means that for each dollar that is added to the x coordinate along the line, (1 ϩ r) dollars are subtracted from the y coordinate. Moving along the line from point A, the initial point of $50,000 this year and $60,000 next year, toward point B gives the person more consumption today and less next year. In other words, moving toward point B is borrowing. Similarly, moving up toward point A, he is consuming less today and more next year and is lending. The
line is a straight line because the individual has no effect on the interest rate. This is one of the assumptions of perfectly competitive financial markets.
Where will the person actually be? The answer to that question depends on the individual’s tastes and personal situation, just as it did before there was a market. If the person is impatient, he might wish to borrow money at a point such as D, and if he is patient, he might wish to lend some of this year’s income and enjoy more consumption next year at, for example, a point such as C.
Notice that whether we think of someone as patient or impatient depends on the interest rate he or she faces in the market. Suppose that our individual was impatient and chose to borrow $10,000 and move to point D. Now suppose that we raise the interest rate to 20 percent or even 50 percent. Suddenly our impatient person may become very patient and might prefer to lend some of this year’s income to take advantage of the very high interest rate. The general result is depicted in Figure 3.3. We can see that lending at point C′ yields
much greater future income and consumption possibilities than before.
THE COMPETITIVE MARKET
In the previous analysis we assumed the individual moves freely along the line AB, and we ignored—and assumed that the individual ignored—any effect his borrowing or lending decisions might have on the equilibrium interest rate itself. What would happen, though, if the total amount of loans outstanding in the market when the person was doing no borrowing or lending was $10 million, and if our person then decided to lend, say, $5 million? His lending would be half as much as the rest of the market put together, and it would not be unreasonable to think that the equilibrium interest rate would fall to induce more borrowers into the market to take his additional loans. In such a situation the person would have some power in the market to influence the equilibrium rate significantly, and he would take this power into consideration in making his decisions.
In the modern financial market, however, the total amount of borrowing and lending is not $10 million; it is closer to $10 trillion. In such a huge market no one investor or even any single company can have a significant effect (although
a government might). We assume, then, in all of our subsequent discussions and analyses that the financial market is competitive. By that we mean no individuals or firms think they have any effect whatsoever on the interest rates that they face no matter how much borrowing, lending, or investing they do. In the language of economics, individuals who respond to rates and prices by acting as though they have no influence on them are called price takers, and this assumption is sometimes called the price-taking assumption. It is the condition of perfectly competitive financial markets (or, more simply, perfect markets). The
following conditions are likely to lead to this:
1. Trading is costless. Access to the financial markets is free.
2. Information about borrowing and lending opportunities is available.
3. There are many traders, and no single trader can have a significant impact on market prices.
How Many Interest Rates Are There in a Competitive Market?
An important point about this one-year market where no defaults can take place is that only one interest rate can be quoted in the market at any one time. Suppose that some competing record keepers decide to set up a rival market. To attract customers, their business plan is to offer lower interest rates, say, 9 percent. Their business plan is based on the hope that they will be able to attract borrowers away from the first market and soon have all of the business.
Their business plan will work, but it will do so beyond their wildest expectations. They will indeed attract the borrowers, all $11 million worth of them! But the matter doesn’t stop there. By offering to borrow and lend at 9 percent when another market is offering 10 percent, they have created the proverbial money machine.
The world of finance is populated by sharp-eyed inhabitants who would not let this opportunity slip by them. Any one of these, whether a borrower or a lender, would go to the new market and borrow everything he could at the 9-percent rate. At the same time he was borrowing in the new market, he would also be striking a deal to lend in the old market at the 10-percent rate. If he could borrow $100 million at 9 percent and lend it at 10 percent, he would be able to net 1 percent, or $1 million, next year. He would repay the $109 million he owed to the new market from the $110 million he receives when the 10-percent loans
he made in the original market are repaid, pocketing $1 million profit.
This process of striking a deal in one market and an offsetting deal in another market simultaneously and at more favorable terms is called arbitrage, and doing it is called arbitraging. Of course, someone must be paying for all this free money, and it must be the record keepers because the borrowers and the lenders are all making money. Our intrepid entrepreneurs will lose their proverbial shirts and go out of business. The moral of this is clear:
As soon as different interest rates are offered for essentially the same risk-free loans, arbitrageurs will take advantage of the situation by borrowing at the low rate and lending at the high rate. The gap between the two rates will be closed quickly, and for all practical purposes there will be only one rate available in the market.
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